Micronutrients in your guide
The micronutrients in your guide
A reference to the vitamins, minerals, and supplements covered in your Micronutrient & Supplement Guide, what each one does, where to find it in food, and the genetics behind your needs. Organized into the same eight groups as your guide.
B-Complex & Methylation
B vitamins and methylation nutrients help turn food into energy and keep your DNA, nerves, and red blood cells healthy.
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Water-soluble
Riboflavin is a water-soluble B vitamin essential for energy production, cellular function, and the metabolism of fats, drugs, and steroids. It also acts as an antioxidant and is important for maintaining healthy skin and eyes.
If you don’t get enough
- Cracked and sore lips (cheilosis)
- Sore throat and mouth
- Inflammation of the tongue (glossitis)
- Skin disorders
- Anemia
- Eye fatigue and sensitivity to light
If you get too much
- Toxicity is very rare (excess is excreted in urine)
- Bright yellow urine (a harmless indicator of excess)
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Vitamin B2 (mg) |
|---|---|---|
| Beef liver | 3 oz (85 g) | 2.9 |
| Fortified breakfast cereal | 1 serving | 1.3 |
| Yogurt (plain, fat-free) | 1 cup (245 g) | 0.6 |
| Milk | 1 cup (244 g) | 0.4 |
| Almonds | 1 oz (28 g) | 0.3 |
| Eggs | 1 large (50 g) | 0.2 |
| Spinach (cooked) | 1/2 cup (90 g) | 0.2 |
RDA for adults: 1.3 mg (men), 1.1 mg (women)
Genetic impact
Variants in the MTHFR gene (especially C677T) can increase riboflavin requirements, as riboflavin is a cofactor for the MTHFR enzyme involved in folate metabolism. People with these variants may benefit from higher B2 intake.
Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Water-soluble Draft
Niacin (vitamin B3) helps convert the food you eat into usable energy and supports healthy skin, nerves, and DNA repair. The body can also make some niacin from the amino acid tryptophan.
If you don’t get enough
- Pellagra (the classic deficiency: dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia)
- Fatigue and weakness
- Skin that is sensitive or flushes easily
- Digestive upset
- Low mood or irritability
If you get too much
- Skin flushing and itching (common with high-dose supplements)
- Nausea and stomach upset
- Liver stress at very high chronic doses
- Worsened blood-sugar control at high doses
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Niacin (mg NE) |
|---|---|---|
| Beef liver | 3 oz (85 g) | 14.7 |
| Tuna | 3 oz (85 g) | 11.3 |
| Chicken breast | 3 oz (85 g) | 10.3 |
| Turkey | 3 oz (85 g) | 10.0 |
| Brown rice (cooked) | 1 cup (202 g) | 5.2 |
| Peanuts | 1 oz (28 g) | 4.2 |
| Fortified breakfast cereal | 1 serving | 20 |
RDA for adults: 16 mg NE (men), 14 mg NE (women)
Genetic impact
Because the body can convert the amino acid tryptophan into niacin, variation in genes along that pathway and in overall energy metabolism can change how much dietary niacin you need. Some people manage niacin comfortably; others run closer to the edge and benefit from steady daily intake.
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Water-soluble
Vitamin B6 is involved in over 100 enzyme reactions in the body, primarily related to protein metabolism. It also plays roles in cognitive development, immune function, and the production of neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine.
If you don’t get enough
- Anemia
- Skin rashes (dermatitis)
- Cracked corners of the mouth
- Depression and confusion
- Weakened immune function
- Swollen tongue
If you get too much
- Peripheral neuropathy (numbness, tingling in extremities)
- Loss of coordination
- Painful skin lesions
- Sensitivity to sunlight
- Nausea and heartburn
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Vitamin B6 (mg) |
|---|---|---|
| Chickpeas (canned) | 1 cup (164 g) | 1.1 |
| Beef liver | 3 oz (85 g) | 0.9 |
| Yellowfin tuna | 3 oz (85 g) | 0.9 |
| Chicken breast | 3 oz (85 g) | 0.5 |
| Banana | 1 medium (118 g) | 0.4 |
| Potato (baked) | 1 medium (173 g) | 0.4 |
| Fortified breakfast cereal | 1 serving | 0.5 |
RDA for adults (19-50): 1.3 mg per day
Genetic impact
Genetic variants in the ALPL gene (which encodes alkaline phosphatase, involved in B6 metabolism) and NBPF3 can affect circulating B6 levels. Some individuals may require higher dietary B6 intake based on their genetic profile.
Vitamin B9 (Folate) Water-soluble
Folate is essential for DNA synthesis, cell division, and amino acid metabolism. It is especially critical during periods of rapid growth, such as pregnancy and fetal development, where it helps prevent neural tube defects.
If you don’t get enough
- Megaloblastic anemia (large, abnormal red blood cells)
- Neural tube defects in developing fetuses
- Fatigue and weakness
- Elevated homocysteine (cardiovascular risk)
- Mouth sores and tongue swelling
- Mood changes (irritability, difficulty concentrating)
If you get too much
- Can mask vitamin B12 deficiency symptoms
- May promote growth of existing cancerous cells (high supplemental folic acid)
- Possible interference with certain medications
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Folate (mcg DFE) |
|---|---|---|
| Beef liver | 3 oz (85 g) | 215 |
| Spinach (cooked) | 1/2 cup (90 g) | 131 |
| Black-eyed peas (cooked) | 1/2 cup (86 g) | 105 |
| Asparagus | 4 spears (60 g) | 89 |
| Brussels sprouts (cooked) | 1/2 cup (78 g) | 78 |
| Fortified breakfast cereal | 1 serving | 100-400 |
| Avocado | 1/2 fruit (68 g) | 59 |
RDA for adults: 400 mcg DFE per day (600 mcg during pregnancy)
Genetic impact
The MTHFR C677T and A1298C variants are well-known genetic factors that reduce the enzyme's ability to convert folate into its active form (5-MTHF). Individuals with these variants may benefit from methylfolate rather than standard folic acid.
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) Water-soluble
Vitamin B12 is essential for red blood cell formation, neurological function, and DNA synthesis. It is naturally found only in animal-derived foods, making intake important for those following plant-based diets.
If you don’t get enough
- Megaloblastic anemia
- Peripheral neuropathy (tingling, numbness)
- Fatigue and weakness
- Cognitive difficulties (memory loss, confusion)
- Balance problems
- Depression
- Glossitis (sore, swollen tongue)
If you get too much
- Toxicity from food sources is extremely rare
- No established upper limit (excess is excreted)
- Very high supplemental doses may rarely cause acne or rosacea
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Vitamin B12 (mcg) |
|---|---|---|
| Clams | 3 oz (85 g) | 84.1 |
| Beef liver | 3 oz (85 g) | 70.7 |
| Salmon | 3 oz (85 g) | 4.8 |
| Trout | 3 oz (85 g) | 3.5 |
| Nutritional yeast (fortified) | 1 tbsp (5 g) | 2.4 |
| Milk | 1 cup (244 g) | 1.2 |
| Eggs | 1 large (50 g) | 0.6 |
RDA for adults: 2.4 mcg per day
Genetic impact
Variants in FUT2 (which affects B12 absorption in the gut) and TCN2 (which affects B12 transport in the blood) can influence B12 status. People with certain variants may have lower B12 levels despite adequate dietary intake.
Choline Essential nutrient Draft
Choline supports liver function, healthy brain development, muscle movement, and the transport of fats. Your body makes a little, but most people need to get choline from food.
If you don’t get enough
- Fatty liver and liver damage
- Muscle damage
- Fatigue
- Impaired fetal brain development during pregnancy
If you get too much
- Fishy body odor
- Sweating and excess salivation
- Low blood pressure
- Liver effects at very high doses
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Choline (mg) |
|---|---|---|
| Beef liver | 3 oz (85 g) | 356 |
| Egg | 1 large | 147 |
| Beef | 3 oz (85 g) | 97 |
| Soybeans (roasted) | 1/2 cup | 107 |
| Chicken breast | 3 oz (85 g) | 72 |
| Cod | 3 oz (85 g) | 71 |
| Potatoes | 1 large | 57 |
Adequate Intake for adults: 550 mg (men), 425 mg (women)
Genetic impact
Variants in PEMT (which lets the body make its own choline) and MTHFD1 can raise choline needs. Some people, especially post-menopausal women, depend more heavily on dietary choline.
Betaine (Trimethylglycine) Methylation support Draft
Betaine, also called trimethylglycine, helps the body process homocysteine and supports liver function and cellular hydration. It is closely tied to choline, which the body can convert into betaine.
If you don’t get enough
- No formal deficiency state is defined
- Low intake may contribute to higher homocysteine levels
If you get too much
- Generally well tolerated from food
- High supplemental doses can raise LDL cholesterol
- GI upset at high doses
Food sources
- Wheat bran and wheat germ
- Spinach and beets (the source of its name)
- Quinoa
- Whole grains
- Shellfish
No established RDA; typical dietary intake is roughly 1-2.5 g per day
Genetic impact
Variants in BHMT (the enzyme that uses betaine to recycle homocysteine) can influence how efficiently you use betaine, and may matter more if you also carry MTHFR variants.
Bone & Structural Minerals
These minerals build and maintain strong bones and teeth and help your nerves and muscles work.
Calcium Bone & nerve
Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body, essential for building and maintaining strong bones and teeth. It also plays vital roles in muscle contraction, nerve signaling, blood clotting, and heart rhythm regulation.
If you don’t get enough
- Osteoporosis and increased fracture risk
- Osteopenia (low bone density)
- Muscle cramps and spasms
- Numbness and tingling in fingers
- Abnormal heart rhythms
- Rickets in children
If you get too much
- Kidney stones
- Constipation
- Impaired absorption of iron and zinc
- Hypercalcemia (nausea, confusion, fatigue)
- Potential cardiovascular risks from excess supplementation
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Calcium (mg) |
|---|---|---|
| Yogurt (plain, low-fat) | 1 cup (245 g) | 415 |
| Fortified orange juice | 1 cup (248 g) | 349 |
| Sardines (canned with bones) | 3 oz (85 g) | 325 |
| Cheddar cheese | 1.5 oz (42 g) | 307 |
| Milk (nonfat) | 1 cup (244 g) | 299 |
| Tofu (calcium-set) | 1/2 cup (126 g) | 253 |
| Kale (cooked) | 1 cup (130 g) | 177 |
RDA for adults (19-50): 1,000 mg per day
Genetic impact
Genetic variants in the vitamin D receptor (VDR) gene and calcium-sensing receptor (CASR) gene can influence calcium absorption and metabolism. Variants in bone-density genes such as COL1A1 may also affect how efficiently your body uses calcium.
Magnesium 300+ reactions
Magnesium is involved in over 300 biochemical reactions in the body. It supports muscle and nerve function, blood sugar regulation, blood pressure control, and protein, bone, and DNA synthesis.
If you don’t get enough
- Muscle cramps and tremors
- Fatigue and weakness
- Numbness and tingling
- Abnormal heart rhythms
- Increased risk of osteoporosis
- Migraines
- Mood changes (anxiety, irritability)
If you get too much
- Diarrhea (most common from supplements)
- Nausea and abdominal cramping
- Very high doses: low blood pressure, irregular heartbeat
- In extreme cases: cardiac arrest (rare, usually from IV magnesium)
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Magnesium (mg) |
|---|---|---|
| Pumpkin seeds | 1 oz (28 g) | 156 |
| Almonds | 1 oz (28 g) | 80 |
| Spinach (cooked) | 1/2 cup (90 g) | 78 |
| Cashews | 1 oz (28 g) | 74 |
| Black beans (cooked) | 1/2 cup (86 g) | 60 |
| Edamame (cooked) | 1/2 cup (78 g) | 50 |
| Dark chocolate (60-69%) | 1 oz (28 g) | 50 |
RDA for adults: 420 mg/day (men), 320 mg/day (women)
Genetic impact
Variants in TRPM6 and TRPM7 genes, which encode magnesium channel proteins, can affect magnesium absorption in the gut and kidneys. Differences in CNNM2 and MRS2 may also influence intracellular magnesium levels.
Fluoride Bone & dental Draft
Fluoride helps harden tooth enamel and bone, protecting against cavities. Most people get it from fluoridated water and dental products.
If you don’t get enough
- Increased risk of tooth decay (cavities)
- Possibly weaker bone mineralization
If you get too much
- Dental fluorosis (white spots or streaks on teeth) from excess during childhood
- Skeletal fluorosis (joint and bone pain) at very high chronic intakes
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Fluoride (mg) |
|---|---|---|
| Fluoridated tap water | 1 L | ~0.7 |
| Brewed tea (black/green) | 1 cup | 0.3-0.5 |
| Sardines (canned, with bones) | 3 oz | ~0.2 |
| Shrimp | 3 oz | ~0.1 |
| Raisins | 1/4 cup | ~0.06 |
Adequate Intake for adults: 4 mg (men), 3 mg (women)
Genetic impact
Genetic differences in enamel-forming proteins and bone metabolism can affect susceptibility to both cavities and fluorosis, though fluoride status is driven more by intake than by genetics.
Phosphorus Bone & energy
Phosphorus is the second most abundant mineral in the body, working closely with calcium to build and maintain strong bones and teeth. It also plays key roles in energy production (as part of ATP), DNA/RNA structure, and acid-base balance.
If you don’t get enough
- Bone pain and weakness
- Loss of appetite
- Numbness and tingling
- Fatigue and weakness
- Increased susceptibility to infections
- Rickets or osteomalacia (softening of bones)
If you get too much
- Impaired calcium absorption (can lead to bone loss)
- Calcification of soft tissues (kidneys, blood vessels)
- Cardiovascular risks (especially with kidney disease)
- Itchy skin
- Joint pain
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Phosphorus (mg) |
|---|---|---|
| Yogurt (plain, nonfat) | 1 cup (245 g) | 356 |
| Lentils (cooked) | 1 cup (198 g) | 356 |
| Salmon (cooked) | 3 oz (85 g) | 315 |
| Milk (nonfat) | 1 cup (244 g) | 247 |
| Chicken breast (cooked) | 3 oz (85 g) | 182 |
| Almonds | 1 oz (28 g) | 136 |
| Whole wheat bread | 1 slice (46 g) | 68 |
RDA for adults: 700 mg per day
Genetic impact
Variants in genes regulating phosphorus homeostasis, such as FGF23, KLOTHO, and SLC34A1/SLC34A3 (sodium-phosphate cotransporters), can affect phosphorus absorption, kidney reabsorption, and bone metabolism.
Cellular Energy & Mitochondrial Support
These compounds help your cells' mitochondria produce and deliver energy. The body makes them, but levels can vary.
CoQ10 (Coenzyme Q10) Mitochondrial Draft
Coenzyme Q10 helps your cells' mitochondria produce energy and acts as an antioxidant. The body makes CoQ10, and levels can decline with age or with certain medications such as statins.
If you don’t get enough
- Not a classic dietary deficiency
- Low levels are linked to fatigue and muscle symptoms
- Associated with some inherited conditions
If you get too much
- Very well tolerated
- High doses may cause mild GI upset
- Occasional insomnia at high doses
Food sources
- Organ meats (heart, liver)
- Fatty fish (sardines, mackerel)
- Beef
- Peanuts and soybeans
- Spinach and broccoli (smaller amounts)
No established RDA; the body synthesizes CoQ10. Studied supplemental amounts vary widely.
Genetic impact
Variants in COQ-pathway genes and in NQO1 (which helps regenerate the active form) can affect how efficiently you produce and recycle CoQ10.
Creatine Energy & muscle Draft
Creatine helps supply rapid energy to muscles and the brain. Your body makes about half of what you need and the rest typically comes from meat and fish.
If you don’t get enough
- Common in vegetarians and vegans, who rely more on the body's own production
- May affect energy and muscle performance
If you get too much
- Generally safe
- High doses can cause water retention, GI upset, or cramping in some people
Food sources
- Red meat (beef)
- Pork
- Salmon and herring
- Tuna
- Plant foods contain essentially none
No established RDA; the body makes about 1 g/day and diet provides about 1 g/day in meat-eaters
Genetic impact
Rare variants in GATM, GAMT, and SLC6A8 (creatine synthesis and transport genes) can significantly affect creatine status; more common variation may subtly influence baseline needs.
L-Carnitine Fat metabolism Draft
L-Carnitine helps shuttle fatty acids into the mitochondria to be burned for energy. The body makes it from the amino acids lysine and methionine, with extra coming from animal foods.
If you don’t get enough
- Usually only with certain genetic or medical conditions
- Can cause muscle weakness and low energy
If you get too much
- Generally safe
- High doses can cause nausea, GI upset, and a fishy body odor
Food sources
- Beef and other red meats (richest source)
- Pork
- Fish
- Chicken
- Milk and dairy (smaller amounts)
No established RDA; healthy people make enough. Meat is the main dietary source.
Genetic impact
Variants in SLC22A5 (the carnitine transporter, OCTN2) affect how well carnitine is absorbed and retained; some people clear it faster and may benefit from dietary sources.
Electrolytes
Electrolytes control fluid balance, nerve signals, and muscle function, including a steady heartbeat.
Sodium Electrolyte Draft
Sodium is an electrolyte that controls fluid balance, nerve signals, and muscle function. For most people the challenge is getting too much rather than too little.
If you don’t get enough
- Rare from diet
- Can occur with heavy sweating, vomiting, or diarrhea
- Symptoms include headache, confusion, and muscle cramps
If you get too much
- Raises blood pressure in salt-sensitive people
- Linked to higher risk of heart disease and stroke
- Fluid retention and swelling
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Sodium (mg) |
|---|---|---|
| Canned soup | 1 cup | ~700 |
| Table salt | 1/4 tsp | ~575 |
| Deli meat | 2 oz | ~500 |
| Olives | 5 | ~220 |
| Cheese | 1 oz | ~175 |
| Bread | 1 slice | ~150 |
Adequate Intake for adults: 1,500 mg/day; aim to stay under 2,300 mg/day
Genetic impact
Variants in blood-pressure and sodium-handling genes (such as ACE, AGT, and CYP11B2) influence how strongly your blood pressure responds to salt, the basis of 'salt sensitivity.'
Potassium Electrolyte
Potassium is an essential electrolyte that helps maintain fluid balance, supports proper nerve and muscle function, and plays a critical role in heart rhythm regulation. It also helps counteract the effects of sodium on blood pressure.
If you don’t get enough
- Muscle weakness and cramps
- Fatigue
- Constipation
- Abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmia)
- High blood pressure
- Increased risk of kidney stones
- In severe cases: paralysis, respiratory failure
If you get too much
- Hyperkalemia: dangerous heart rhythms
- Muscle weakness or paralysis
- Nausea and vomiting
- Numbness and tingling
- In severe cases: cardiac arrest
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Potassium (mg) |
|---|---|---|
| Baked potato (with skin) | 1 medium (173 g) | 926 |
| Spinach (cooked) | 1 cup (180 g) | 839 |
| White beans (canned) | 1/2 cup (131 g) | 595 |
| Sweet potato (baked) | 1 medium (114 g) | 542 |
| Banana | 1 medium (118 g) | 422 |
| Avocado | 1/2 fruit (68 g) | 345 |
| Salmon (cooked) | 3 oz (85 g) | 326 |
Adequate Intake for adults: 3,400 mg/day (men), 2,600 mg/day (women)
Genetic impact
Genetic variants in potassium channel genes (KCNJ1, KCNMA1) and the sodium-potassium pump gene (ATP1A1) can affect how your body regulates potassium. Variants in WNK kinase genes influence kidney handling of potassium and blood-pressure response.
Essential Fatty Acids
Your body cannot make these fats, so they must come from food. They support your heart, brain, and healthy inflammation.
Omega-3 Essential fatty acid Draft
Omega-3 fatty acids support heart, brain, and eye health and help regulate inflammation. The key forms are ALA (from plants) and EPA and DHA (mainly from fish).
If you don’t get enough
- Dry skin
- Poor concentration
- May worsen inflammatory conditions
- Low EPA/DHA linked to cardiovascular and cognitive concerns
If you get too much
- Generally safe
- High doses can thin the blood
- GI upset or a fishy aftertaste
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Omega-3 (g) |
|---|---|---|
| Flaxseed oil | 1 tbsp | 7.3 (ALA) |
| Chia seeds | 1 oz | 5.1 (ALA) |
| Walnuts | 1 oz | 2.5 (ALA) |
| Salmon | 3 oz | 1.2-1.8 (EPA+DHA) |
| Sardines | 3 oz | 0.8-1.4 (EPA+DHA) |
| Mackerel | 3 oz | 0.4-1.8 (EPA+DHA) |
Adequate Intake for ALA: 1.6 g (men), 1.1 g (women). No separate EPA/DHA target is set.
Genetic impact
Variants in FADS1 and FADS2 strongly affect how well your body converts plant-based ALA into EPA and DHA. People who convert poorly may rely more on fish or algae sources.
Omega-6 Essential fatty acid Draft
Omega-6 fatty acids, mainly linoleic acid, are essential for skin, cell membranes, and immune signaling. Most diets provide plenty; balance with omega-3s matters more than total amount.
If you don’t get enough
- Rare
- Dry, scaly skin
- Poor wound healing
If you get too much
- No formal toxicity
- A very high omega-6 to omega-3 ratio may promote inflammation in some people
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Omega-6 (g) |
|---|---|---|
| Walnuts | 1 oz | 10.8 |
| Sunflower seeds | 1 oz | 9.3 |
| Sunflower oil | 1 tbsp | 8.9 |
| Soybean oil | 1 tbsp | 6.9 |
| Tofu | 1/2 cup | 4.5 |
| Eggs | 1 large | 1.2 |
Adequate Intake for linoleic acid: 17 g (men), 12 g (women), ages 19-50
Genetic impact
The same FADS1/FADS2 variants that affect omega-3 conversion also shape omega-6 metabolism, influencing your personal balance of these fats.
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
These vitamins are stored in body fat and absorbed best alongside dietary fat. They support vision, bones, immunity, and clotting.
Vitamin A (β-carotene) Fat-soluble
Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin crucial for vision (especially night vision), immune function, reproduction, and cellular communication. It also supports the health of skin, teeth, and mucous membranes.
If you don’t get enough
- Night blindness and vision problems
- Dry eyes (xerophthalmia)
- Increased susceptibility to infections
- Dry, rough skin
- Impaired growth in children
If you get too much
- Nausea, headache, dizziness
- Liver damage (chronic excess)
- Birth defects (during pregnancy)
- Bone thinning and joint pain
- Skin changes (peeling, dryness)
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Vitamin A (mcg RAE) |
|---|---|---|
| Beef liver | 3 oz (85 g) | 6,582 |
| Sweet potato (baked) | 1 medium (114 g) | 1,403 |
| Spinach (cooked) | 1/2 cup (90 g) | 573 |
| Carrots (raw) | 1/2 cup (61 g) | 459 |
| Cantaloupe | 1/2 cup (78 g) | 135 |
| Red bell pepper | 1/2 cup (75 g) | 117 |
| Mango | 1 cup (165 g) | 89 |
RDA for adults: 900 mcg RAE (men), 700 mcg RAE (women)
Genetic impact
Variants in the BCMO1 gene can significantly reduce the conversion of beta-carotene (from plant sources) into active vitamin A. People with certain BCMO1 variants may need preformed vitamin A from animal sources.
Vitamin D Fat-soluble
Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin unique in that your body can produce it when skin is exposed to sunlight. It is essential for calcium absorption, bone health, immune function, and mood regulation.
If you don’t get enough
- Rickets in children (soft, weak bones)
- Osteomalacia in adults (bone pain, muscle weakness)
- Increased risk of osteoporosis
- Weakened immune function
- Increased risk of depression
- Fatigue
If you get too much
- Hypercalcemia (nausea, vomiting, weakness)
- Kidney damage and kidney stones
- Calcium deposits in soft tissues
- Confusion and disorientation
- Heart rhythm abnormalities
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Vitamin D (mcg) |
|---|---|---|
| Cod liver oil | 1 tbsp (14 g) | 34.0 |
| Trout | 3 oz (85 g) | 16.2 |
| Salmon (sockeye) | 3 oz (85 g) | 14.2 |
| Fortified milk | 1 cup (244 g) | 2.9 |
| Fortified orange juice | 1 cup (248 g) | 2.5 |
| Sardines (canned) | 2 sardines (24 g) | 1.2 |
| Egg yolk | 1 large | 1.1 |
RDA for adults (19-70): 15 mcg (600 IU) per day
Genetic impact
Variants in VDR, GC, CYP2R1, and CYP27B1 genes can all affect vitamin D metabolism, transport, and activation, significantly influencing individual vitamin D requirements.
Vitamin E Fat-soluble
Vitamin E is a fat-soluble antioxidant that protects cells from oxidative damage. It also plays roles in immune function, cell signaling, and widening blood vessels to prevent blood clotting.
If you don’t get enough
- Nerve and muscle damage
- Loss of body movement control (ataxia)
- Weakened immune function
- Vision problems (retinopathy)
- Muscle weakness
If you get too much
- Increased bleeding risk (interferes with blood clotting)
- Nausea, diarrhea, fatigue
- Possible increased risk of hemorrhagic stroke
- Interaction with blood-thinning medications
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Vitamin E (mg) |
|---|---|---|
| Wheat germ oil | 1 tbsp (14 g) | 20.3 |
| Sunflower seeds | 1 oz (28 g) | 7.4 |
| Almonds | 1 oz (28 g) | 7.3 |
| Hazelnuts | 1 oz (28 g) | 4.3 |
| Peanut butter | 2 tbsp (32 g) | 2.9 |
| Avocado | 1/2 fruit (68 g) | 2.1 |
| Spinach (cooked) | 1/2 cup (90 g) | 1.9 |
RDA for adults: 15 mg per day
Genetic impact
Variants in lipid-metabolism genes such as APOA5, SCARB1, and CYP4F2 can influence vitamin E absorption, transport, and metabolism, affecting optimal intake for different individuals.
Vitamin K Fat-soluble
Vitamin K is a fat-soluble vitamin essential for blood clotting (coagulation) and bone metabolism. It exists in two main forms: K1 (phylloquinone, from plants) and K2 (menaquinone, from animal foods and fermented products).
If you don’t get enough
- Excessive bleeding and easy bruising
- Weakened bones and increased fracture risk
- Calcification of blood vessels
- Hemorrhagic disease in newborns
If you get too much
- No known toxicity from food sources of K1 or K2
- Synthetic vitamin K3 (menadione) can cause toxicity
- Can interfere with blood-thinning medications (warfarin)
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Vitamin K (mcg) |
|---|---|---|
| Kale (cooked) | 1 cup (130 g) | 1,062 |
| Natto (fermented soybeans) | 1 oz (28 g) | 313 |
| Spinach (raw) | 1 cup (30 g) | 145 |
| Broccoli (cooked) | 1/2 cup (78 g) | 110 |
| Brussels sprouts (cooked) | 1/2 cup (78 g) | 109 |
| Green peas | 1/2 cup (80 g) | 21 |
| Chicken breast | 3 oz (85 g) | 13 |
Adequate Intake for adults: 120 mcg (men), 90 mcg (women)
Genetic impact
Variants in VKORC1 (vitamin K epoxide reductase) significantly affect vitamin K recycling and are the primary genetic factor influencing warfarin dose requirements. CYP4F2 variants can also affect vitamin K metabolism.
Immune & Antioxidant
These nutrients defend your cells against oxidative damage and keep your immune system working well.
Vitamin C Water-soluble
Vitamin C is a powerful antioxidant essential for the growth, development, and repair of all body tissues. It is involved in collagen formation, iron absorption, immune function, wound healing, and maintenance of cartilage, bones, and teeth.
If you don’t get enough
- Scurvy (fatigue, swollen gums, joint pain)
- Slow wound healing
- Dry, splitting hair and rough skin
- Weakened immune system
- Easy bruising
- Iron-deficiency anemia (reduced iron absorption)
If you get too much
- Diarrhea, nausea, abdominal cramps
- Kidney stones (in susceptible individuals)
- Excess iron absorption (problematic with hemochromatosis)
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Vitamin C (mg) |
|---|---|---|
| Red bell pepper | 1/2 cup (75 g) | 95 |
| Orange | 1 medium (131 g) | 70 |
| Kiwi | 1 medium (75 g) | 64 |
| Broccoli (cooked) | 1/2 cup (78 g) | 51 |
| Strawberries | 1/2 cup (76 g) | 49 |
| Brussels sprouts (cooked) | 1/2 cup (78 g) | 48 |
| Grapefruit | 1/2 fruit (128 g) | 39 |
RDA for adults: 90 mg (men), 75 mg (women)
Genetic impact
Variants in the SLC23A1 gene (a vitamin C transporter) can affect how efficiently your body absorbs and maintains vitamin C levels. Some genetic profiles may need higher dietary intake for optimal blood levels.
Copper Red blood cells
Copper is a trace mineral essential for forming red blood cells, maintaining healthy bones and connective tissue, and supporting immune function. It also acts as a cofactor for enzymes involved in energy production and iron metabolism.
If you don’t get enough
- Anemia (low red blood cell count)
- Weakened bones and connective tissue
- Impaired immune response
- Neurological problems (numbness, weakness)
- Higher risk of cardiovascular issues
If you get too much
- Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea
- Liver damage
- Kidney problems
- Neurological symptoms in severe cases
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Copper (mg) |
|---|---|---|
| Beef liver | 3 oz (85 g) | 12.4 |
| Oysters | 3 oz (85 g) | 4.8 |
| Shiitake mushrooms (cooked) | 1 cup (145 g) | 1.3 |
| Cashews | 1 oz (28 g) | 0.6 |
| Dark chocolate (70-85%) | 1 oz (28 g) | 0.5 |
| Sunflower seeds | 1 oz (28 g) | 0.5 |
| Lentils (cooked) | 1 cup (198 g) | 0.5 |
RDA for adults: 900 mcg (0.9 mg) per day
Genetic impact
Genetic variations can affect copper absorption, transport (via ceruloplasmin), and utilization. Some individuals have higher or lower copper needs based on variants in genes like ATP7A and ATP7B.
Selenium Antioxidant
Selenium is a powerful antioxidant trace mineral that plays critical roles in thyroid function, DNA synthesis, and protecting the body from oxidative damage and infection. It is incorporated into selenoproteins with wide-ranging functions.
If you don’t get enough
- Weakened immune system
- Increased susceptibility to infections
- Keshan disease (a type of heart disease)
- Kashin-Beck disease (a type of joint disease)
- Thyroid dysfunction
If you get too much
- Selenosis: hair loss, nail brittleness
- Garlic-like breath odor
- Nausea, diarrhea
- Skin rashes
- Nervous system abnormalities
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Selenium (mcg) |
|---|---|---|
| Brazil nuts | 1 nut (5 g) | 96 |
| Yellowfin tuna | 3 oz (85 g) | 92 |
| Halibut | 3 oz (85 g) | 47 |
| Sardines | 3 oz (85 g) | 45 |
| Turkey | 3 oz (85 g) | 31 |
| Chicken breast | 3 oz (85 g) | 22 |
| Eggs | 1 large (50 g) | 15 |
RDA for adults: 55 mcg per day
Genetic impact
Variants in selenoprotein genes (such as GPX1, SELENOP, and TXNRD1) can affect how efficiently your body utilizes selenium. Some people may need more to achieve optimal selenoprotein activity.
Zinc Immune & repair
Zinc is essential for immune function, wound healing, protein and DNA synthesis, cell division, and proper sense of taste and smell. It is involved in over 300 enzymatic reactions in the body.
If you don’t get enough
- Weakened immune system and frequent infections
- Delayed wound healing
- Hair loss
- Loss of appetite and taste
- Growth retardation in children
- Skin lesions
- Impaired cognitive function
If you get too much
- Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea
- Copper deficiency (zinc competes with copper absorption)
- Lowered immune function from chronic excess
- Reduced HDL ('good') cholesterol
- Headaches and abdominal cramps
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Zinc (mg) |
|---|---|---|
| Oysters | 3 oz (85 g) | 74.0 |
| Beef chuck roast | 3 oz (85 g) | 7.0 |
| Crab (Alaska king) | 3 oz (85 g) | 6.5 |
| Pork chop | 3 oz (85 g) | 2.9 |
| Baked beans | 1/2 cup (130 g) | 2.9 |
| Pumpkin seeds | 1 oz (28 g) | 2.2 |
| Chickpeas (cooked) | 1/2 cup (82 g) | 1.3 |
RDA for adults: 11 mg/day (men), 8 mg/day (women)
Genetic impact
Genetic variants in zinc transporters (the SLC30A and SLC39A gene families) can influence zinc absorption, distribution, and excretion, affecting individual requirements and susceptibility to deficiency.
Metabolic & Hormonal Minerals
These minerals keep your metabolism, thyroid, and blood running smoothly.
Iron Oxygen transport
Iron is essential for oxygen transport in the blood (as part of hemoglobin) and in muscles (as part of myoglobin). It also supports energy metabolism, immune function, and cognitive development.
If you don’t get enough
- Iron-deficiency anemia (fatigue, weakness, pale skin)
- Impaired cognitive function and concentration
- Weakened immune system
- Shortness of breath
- Restless leg syndrome
- Developmental delays in children
If you get too much
- Hemochromatosis (iron overload): liver damage, heart problems
- Nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain
- Oxidative stress and cellular damage
- Increased risk of diabetes and liver disease
- Joint pain
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Iron (mg) |
|---|---|---|
| Fortified breakfast cereal | 1 serving (33 g) | 18.0 |
| Oysters | 3 oz (85 g) | 8.0 |
| White beans (canned) | 1 cup (262 g) | 8.0 |
| Beef liver | 3 oz (85 g) | 5.0 |
| Dark chocolate (45-69%) | 1 oz (28 g) | 3.4 |
| Lentils (cooked) | 1/2 cup (99 g) | 3.3 |
| Spinach (cooked) | 1/2 cup (90 g) | 3.2 |
RDA for adults: 8 mg/day (men), 18 mg/day (women 19-50)
Genetic impact
Variants in the HFE gene (such as C282Y and H63D) are strongly associated with hereditary hemochromatosis, causing excessive iron absorption. Variants in TMPRSS6 and TFR2 can also affect iron regulation.
Iodine Thyroid
Iodine is essential for the production of thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism, growth, and development. It is particularly important during pregnancy and early childhood for brain development.
If you don’t get enough
- Goiter (enlarged thyroid gland)
- Hypothyroidism (fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance)
- Impaired brain development in infants and children
- Pregnancy complications
- Cognitive impairment
If you get too much
- Thyroid dysfunction (both hyper- and hypothyroidism)
- Thyroiditis (inflammation of the thyroid)
- Nausea, fever, and diarrhea in acute cases
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Iodine (mcg) |
|---|---|---|
| Cod | 3 oz (85 g) | 158 |
| Yogurt (plain) | 1 cup (245 g) | 75 |
| Iodized salt | 1/4 tsp (1.5 g) | 71 |
| Milk | 1 cup (244 g) | 56 |
| Shrimp | 3 oz (85 g) | 35 |
| Eggs | 1 large (50 g) | 24 |
| Seaweed (nori) | 1 sheet (2.5 g) | 16-43 |
RDA for adults: 150 mcg per day
Genetic impact
Genetic variants in thyroid-related genes (such as TPO, TSHR, and DIO1/DIO2) can influence how efficiently your body uses iodine to produce thyroid hormones, potentially affecting your iodine requirements.
Manganese Enzyme cofactor
Manganese is a trace mineral that serves as a cofactor for many enzymes involved in bone formation, blood clotting, metabolism of amino acids, carbohydrates, and cholesterol, and antioxidant defense.
If you don’t get enough
- Poor bone health and skeletal abnormalities
- Impaired glucose tolerance
- Altered carbohydrate and fat metabolism
- Skin rash
- Impaired growth in children
If you get too much
- Neurological symptoms resembling Parkinson's disease (manganism)
- Tremors, difficulty walking
- Cognitive and behavioral changes
- Respiratory issues (from inhaled manganese dust)
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Manganese (mg) |
|---|---|---|
| Mussels | 3 oz (85 g) | 5.8 |
| Brown rice (cooked) | 1 cup (202 g) | 1.8 |
| Hazelnuts | 1 oz (28 g) | 1.7 |
| Spinach (cooked) | 1 cup (180 g) | 1.7 |
| Pineapple | 1 cup (165 g) | 1.5 |
| Oatmeal (cooked) | 1 cup (234 g) | 1.4 |
| Pecans | 1 oz (28 g) | 1.3 |
Adequate Intake for adults: 2.3 mg/day (men), 1.8 mg/day (women)
Genetic impact
Variants in SLC30A10 and SLC39A14 genes can affect manganese transport and metabolism, influencing both the risk of deficiency and susceptibility to manganese toxicity.
Chromium Glucose metabolism Draft
Chromium is a trace mineral that helps insulin move glucose into cells, supporting healthy blood-sugar metabolism.
If you don’t get enough
- Rare
- May show as impaired blood-sugar control
- Higher insulin needs
If you get too much
- Low toxicity from food
- Very high supplemental doses have occasionally been linked to kidney or liver effects
Food sources
| Food | Serving size | Chromium (mcg) |
|---|---|---|
| Broccoli | 1/2 cup | 11 |
| Grape juice | 1 cup | 8 |
| Whole wheat English muffin | 1 | 4 |
| Potatoes (mashed) | 1 cup | 3 |
| Turkey breast | 3 oz | 2 |
| Green beans | 1/2 cup | 1 |
Adequate Intake for adults: 35 mcg (men), 25 mcg (women)
Genetic impact
Genetic differences in insulin signaling and glucose metabolism can influence how much chromium benefits blood-sugar control, though the evidence is still emerging.
Sulfur Amino acids & detox Draft
Sulfur is supplied mainly through the sulfur-containing amino acids methionine and cysteine. It supports protein structure, antioxidant defense (glutathione), and detoxification.
If you don’t get enough
- No defined deficiency state
- Low protein intake can limit sulfur amino acids
If you get too much
- No formal toxicity from food sources
Food sources
- Eggs
- Meat, poultry, and fish
- Garlic, onions, and leeks
- Cruciferous vegetables (broccoli, cabbage, Brussels sprouts)
- Legumes
No established RDA; sulfur needs are met by adequate protein (methionine and cysteine)
Genetic impact
Variants in the transsulfuration genes CBS and CTH affect how the body processes sulfur amino acids and homocysteine, linking sulfur metabolism to methylation and antioxidant capacity.
Start with what your body actually needs
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