Other Essential Health Nutrients

Beyond vitamins and minerals, your body relies on other essential nutrients for energy production, brain function, heart health, and inflammation regulation.

Assorted healthy foods including salmon, avocado, broccoli, and vegetables on a white background

Choline

Choline is an essential nutrient critical for liver function, brain development, muscle movement, nervous system function, and metabolism. It is a precursor to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which is involved in memory, mood, and muscle control.

Risks of Not Having Enough (Deficiency)

  • Liver damage and fatty liver disease
  • Muscle damage
  • Impaired memory and cognitive function
  • Neural tube defects during pregnancy
  • Increased homocysteine levels (cardiovascular risk)

Risks of Having Too Much (Toxicity)

  • Fishy body odor
  • Excessive sweating and salivation
  • Low blood pressure
  • Liver toxicity (at very high doses)
  • Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea

Food Sources

Food Serving Size Choline (mg)
Beef liver 3 oz (85 g) 356
Eggs 1 large (50 g) 147
Chicken breast 3 oz (85 g) 72
Soybeans (roasted) 1/2 cup (86 g) 107
Cod 3 oz (85 g) 71
Quinoa (cooked) 1 cup (185 g) 43
Broccoli (cooked) 1 cup (156 g) 63

*Adequate Intake (AI) for adults: 550 mg/day (men), 425 mg/day (women)

Summary of Genetic Impact

Variants in the PEMT gene can significantly increase choline requirements, particularly in women. The PEMT enzyme produces choline endogenously, and reduced activity from genetic variants means more dietary choline is needed. MTHFR variants also affect choline needs since folate and choline metabolism are interconnected.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Omega-3 fatty acids are essential polyunsaturated fats that your body cannot produce on its own. The three main types are ALA (from plants), EPA, and DHA (from marine sources). They are critical for brain function, heart health, and reducing inflammation throughout the body.

Risks of Not Having Enough (Deficiency)

  • Increased risk of cardiovascular disease
  • Cognitive decline and poor memory
  • Dry, irritated skin and eyes
  • Joint pain and stiffness
  • Mood disorders (depression, anxiety)
  • Poor fetal brain and eye development during pregnancy

Risks of Having Too Much (Toxicity)

  • Increased bleeding risk (at very high doses)
  • Fishy aftertaste and bad breath
  • Digestive issues (heartburn, nausea)
  • Possible immune suppression (at extremely high doses)
  • Interaction with blood-thinning medications

Food Sources

Food Serving Size Omega-3 (g)
Salmon (Atlantic, farmed) 3 oz (85 g) 1.8 (EPA+DHA)
Mackerel (Atlantic) 3 oz (85 g) 1.6 (EPA+DHA)
Sardines (canned) 3 oz (85 g) 1.2 (EPA+DHA)
Walnuts 1 oz (28 g) 2.6 (ALA)
Flaxseeds (ground) 1 tbsp (7 g) 1.6 (ALA)
Chia seeds 1 oz (28 g) 5.1 (ALA)
Cod liver oil 1 tsp (5 mL) 0.9 (EPA+DHA)

*Adequate Intake (AI) for ALA: 1.6 g/day (men), 1.1 g/day (women). No established RDA for EPA/DHA, but 250-500 mg combined EPA+DHA is commonly recommended.

Summary of Genetic Impact

Variants in FADS1 and FADS2 genes significantly affect the conversion of ALA to EPA and DHA. People with reduced FADS activity may need to consume preformed EPA and DHA from fish or supplements rather than relying on plant-based ALA sources. APOE variants can also influence how omega-3s affect cardiovascular and brain health.

Omega-6 Fatty Acids

Omega-6 fatty acids are essential polyunsaturated fats that play important roles in brain function, growth, development, and inflammation regulation. The most common omega-6 is linoleic acid (LA), found in many vegetable oils. While essential, the balance between omega-6 and omega-3 intake is important for health.

Risks of Not Having Enough (Deficiency)

  • Dry, scaly skin and dermatitis
  • Hair loss
  • Poor wound healing
  • Growth retardation in children
  • Increased susceptibility to infections

Risks of Having Too Much (Toxicity)

  • Increased inflammation when omega-6 to omega-3 ratio is too high
  • Potential increased risk of cardiovascular disease
  • May promote inflammatory conditions
  • Weight gain (calorie-dense oils)

Food Sources

Food Serving Size Omega-6 (g)
Soybean oil 1 tbsp (14 g) 6.9
Sunflower oil 1 tbsp (14 g) 8.9
Corn oil 1 tbsp (14 g) 7.3
Walnuts 1 oz (28 g) 10.8
Sunflower seeds 1 oz (28 g) 6.4
Pumpkin seeds 1 oz (28 g) 2.6
Almonds 1 oz (28 g) 3.4

*Adequate Intake (AI) for linoleic acid: 17 g/day (men 19-50), 12 g/day (women 19-50). Optimal omega-6 to omega-3 ratio is debated but generally recommended at 4:1 or lower.

Summary of Genetic Impact

Variants in FADS1 and FADS2 genes affect the conversion of linoleic acid to arachidonic acid (AA), which is involved in inflammation. Individuals with high-activity FADS variants may produce more inflammatory compounds from omega-6 intake and may particularly benefit from balancing their omega-6 to omega-3 ratio.

Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10)

CoQ10 is a naturally occurring compound found in every cell of your body, with the highest concentrations in the heart, liver, kidneys, and pancreas. It plays a fundamental role in energy production within mitochondria and serves as a powerful antioxidant protecting cells from oxidative damage.

Risks of Not Having Enough (Deficiency)

  • Fatigue and low energy
  • Muscle weakness and pain
  • Heart failure and cardiovascular problems
  • Increased oxidative stress
  • Cognitive difficulties
  • Statin-related muscle symptoms (statins lower CoQ10 levels)

Risks of Having Too Much (Toxicity)

  • Generally well-tolerated even at high doses
  • Mild digestive upset (insomnia, nausea) at very high doses
  • May reduce effectiveness of blood-thinning medications
  • May lower blood sugar (caution for diabetics on medication)

Food Sources

Food Serving Size CoQ10 (mg)
Beef heart 3 oz (85 g) 26.0
Beef liver 3 oz (85 g) 3.9
Pork 3 oz (85 g) 2.5
Chicken 3 oz (85 g) 1.4
Trout 3 oz (85 g) 0.9
Soybeans (cooked) 1/2 cup (86 g) 1.2
Peanuts 1 oz (28 g) 0.8

*No established RDA. Typical supplemental doses range from 100-300 mg/day. The body produces CoQ10 naturally, but production declines with age.

Summary of Genetic Impact

Variants in COQ2 and other genes in the CoQ10 biosynthesis pathway can affect your body's ability to produce CoQ10 endogenously. Additionally, NQO1 gene variants can affect the conversion between oxidized and reduced forms of CoQ10, potentially influencing its antioxidant effectiveness and supplementation needs.

References

References

Numbers in the text match this list. Accessed February 9, 2026.

  1. MedlinePlus (NIH). Nutrition. https://medlineplus.gov/nutrition.html

  2. CDC (NCHS). Nutrition (Health, United States): macronutrients and chronic disease risk. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/hus/topics/nutrition.htm

  3. MedlinePlus (NIH). Carbohydrates. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002469.htm

  4. MedlinePlus (NIH). Dietary Fiber. https://medlineplus.gov/dietaryfiber.html

  5. World Health Organization (WHO). Guideline: Sugars intake for adults and children (2015). https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241549028

  6. USDA Nutrition Evidence Systematic Review (NESR). Sugar-sweetened beverages and risk of type 2 diabetes: systematic review (Nov 2024). https://nesr.usda.gov/sites/default/files/2024-11/Sugar-sweetened-beverages_type-2-diabetes-2025DGACSystematicReview.pdf

  7. CDC. About Cavities (Tooth Decay). https://www.cdc.gov/oral-health/about/cavities-tooth-decay.html

  8. American Heart Association (AHA). Whole grains, refined grains, and dietary fiber. https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-eating/eat-smart/nutrition-basics/whole-grains-refined-grains-and-dietary-fiber

  9. BMJ. Whole grain foods and risk of type 2 diabetes: meta-analysis summary. https://www.bmj.com/content/370/bmj.m2206

  10. MedlinePlus (NIH). Dietary fats explained. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/patientinstructions/000104.htm

  11. American Heart Association (AHA). Fats in Foods. https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-eating/eat-smart/fats/fats-in-foods

  12. USDA Food and Nutrition Service (FNS). Dietary Guidelines for Americans (current edition). https://www.fns.usda.gov/cnpp/dietary-guidelines-americans

  13. MyPlate (USDA). More Key Topics: Oils, Added Sugars, Saturated Fats. https://www.myplate.gov/eat-healthy/more-key-topics

  14. NCCIH (NIH). Omega-3 supplements: what you need to know. https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/omega3-supplements-what-you-need-to-know

  15. MedlinePlus (NIH). Protein in diet. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002467.htm

  16. MyPlate (USDA). Protein Foods Group. https://www.myplate.gov/eat-healthy/protein-foods

  17. NIH Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS). Vitamin B12 fact sheet for consumers (PDF). https://ods.od.nih.gov/pdf/factsheets/VitaminB12-Consumer.pdf

  18. IARC (WHO). IARC Monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat (Press Release No. 240, 2015) (PDF). https://www.iarc.who.int/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/pr240_E.pdf

  19. National Kidney Foundation. CKD Diet: How much protein is the right amount?. https://www.kidney.org/kidney-topics/ckd-diet-how-much-protein-right-amount

USDA. FoodData Central (nutrition database). https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/